Literature Reviews

Researchers have theorized about potential effects of Mobility-as-a-service (MaaS) programs and public health. A study in Transportation Research highlighted health concerns related to possible reductions in active transport like walking and biking, since MaaS products are based on monetizable modes of transport and emphasize door-to-door service [1]. However, another study in Research in Transportation Business & Management argues that MaaS has the potential to incentivize use of active transport [2].

There is a lack of research studying how MaaS models have impacted public health in practice.

Mobility-as-a-service (MaaS) applications may have mixed impacts on measures of social equity. Research on the impact of digital apps to facilitate ride-hail shows they lowered transportation inequities for seniors in Japan [1], but maintained existing regional rural-urban disparities in Finland [2]. Unbanked users and those without smartphones may also be left out of use, as well as non-native English speakers, which may exacerbate barriers to mobility faced by those groups [3]. Market dominance by private MaaS companies may also lead to monopolization and price discrimination, which may impact those most reliant on public transportation [3]. Public transportation is crucial for low-income groups, who, paradoxically, find it harder to access than people in wealthier neighborhoods. While MaaS presents an opportunity to enhance accessibility and equity, it's essential for policy makers to address and eliminate barriers that maintain the status quo of exclusion for these communities [4].

Studies show that Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS) could decrease the use and ownership of private vehicles and support a switch to active travel modes and transit [1], [2], [3]. However, the magnitude of this switch is not comprehensively explored among the literature [2]. According to one simulation study, MaaS could reduce emissions by up to 54 percent, depending on the modeling scenarios [4]. Another simulation study showed that MaaS could reduce transport-related energy consumption because of the introduction of car-sharing and bike-sharing services [5]. Another study suggested that MaaS could reduce vehicle miles traveled and related negative externalities [6].

Several research directions are promising for future studies. First, there are limited studies on what drives people to use MaaS, highlighting a need to explore user incentives to adoption. Understanding these factors can inform more targeted service design and marketing strategies. Second, modeling the integration of multi-modal travel within MaaS is crucial. This could offer insights into optimizing traffic flows and enhancing the environmental and social benefits of MaaS. Third, the collaborative mechanism between the public and private sectors in the MaaS ecosystem requires further examination. Investigating how these entities can better cooperate could foster the broader application of MaaS solutions.

There is still disagreement regarding what defines Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS) as a business model, and research on how the implementation of MaaS would affect municipal budgets is limited. Many argue that to be successful, MaaS will have to develop a model that will be able to balance public and private providers in a sustainable manner [1], [2], but currently no such path exists. Doubts around the implementation of MaaS have been exacerbated by the recent failure of MaaS global [3]. The limited existing research on the budgetary impact from MaaS is based on revenue allocation models of economic spillovers from the deployment of such systems globally, rather than the direct impact of the presence of a MaaS system in a specific municipality [4].

By bundling multiple modes into one interface and payment scheme, Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS) can both induce mode shift [1] and generate new trips [2], which has implications for urban land use. Early research suggests that those most likely to use MaaS services are those who already use public transit frequently [3]. However, price structure specifics, like the number of discounted rides, geofencing, and unlimited options, can determine MaaS user mode choice [4], which can then impact congestion and parking demand. MaaS schemes that incentivize private auto drivers to switch to public transit may ease parking demand and congestion, but schemes that incentivize the switch to services like ride-hail or carshare may exacerbate congestion. MaaS services may also induce mode changes from active transportation modes like biking and walking towards public transit and ride-hail [1], with unclear implications for congestion and use of infrastructure like bike lanes and sidewalks. Future research should consider the impact of MaaS on parking demand in dense urban areas.

Mobility-as-a-service business models rely on collection of personal and financial data, creating potential privacy and safety concerns for prospective users [1] [2]. There is little available research on how MaaS programs impact safety in practice.

The environmental impact of Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS) and related business models depends on how the services are offered, and the incentives of the operator [1]. For example, if ride hailing is incentivized over public transit and bike-shares, there would be fewer environmental benefits [2]. Additionally, private operated mobility services are generally focused on maximizing revenue, while public transport operators may focus more on public benefits including reduced environmental impact [3]. A study assessing welfare impacts of MaaS found that MaaS schemes with shared mobility have the potential to substantially reduce energy consumption, and even greater reductions were possible with improved cost transparency for use of cars and inclusion of externalities such as greenhouse gas emissions in the generalized cost [4].

A review of the literature using Google Scholar and ProQuest yielded no applicable research, indicating a probable gap in the literature.