The expansion of on-demand delivery services has been made possible by ghost kitchens and dark stores – grocery fulfillment centers which are located near consumers but are not open to customers [1]. These fulfillment centers have created new real estate opportunities. Several major ghost kitchen operators are known for building large portfolios out of warehouses, empty strip malls, or other storefronts near areas with growing on-demand food-delivery markets [1]. Restaurants are dispersing away from ground-floor locations in popular retail districts as ghost kitchens increase their urban real estate [1], [2].

One emerging area of study is the impact of on-demand delivery services on restaurant formation and viability. The services charge participating restaurants delivery fees as high as 30 percent of order value, though some cities have imposed caps of 15 percent [3].