Delivery services, also known as on-demand delivery services, food delivery services or crowdshipping, are a real-time local delivery solution for goods, typically prepared foods, groceries, or other consumer staples. Due to the rapid growth of online shopping, development of emerging technologies, and innovative forms of delivery services, have become more capable of handling a wide range of delivery needs, from small parcels to large-scale freight, with a level of precision and efficiency that was previously unattainable [1].

On demand delivery service businesses use platform technology to connect three parties in a marketplace: 1) a supplier of goods, often a restaurant, and 2) independent contractors or gig workers who can collect, transport, and deliver the goods to 3) a consumer who has ordered the goods.

New technologies such as crowdsourcing, location-based services, electric bikes and scooters, and advanced algorithms have empowered the courier services providers to offer faster, more environmentally friendly, and personalized delivery options to their customers. At the same time, to satisfy customers’ increasing and various demand of delivery services, new service forms are introduced, such as crowdsourced delivery (i.e., distributing delivery services to personal deliver instead of company staff) [2] and cross shipping (i.e., sending parcels to customers through an intermediate point instead of directly) [3].

Delivery services are popular globally, with top markets in China, the United States, and India [4]. Top companies in the United States are UberEats, and DoorDash [5].

A new trend in on-demand delivery service is to use robotic delivery services. The demand for robotic delivery services has increased quickly due to the technology development, challenges from traditional human delivery, and rising requests for contactless deliveries during COVID-19 [6]. As of 2021, cities located in 18 states in the US [7] had launched their robotic delivery pilot programs, such as Los Angeles, CA [8], Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania [9], and Redwood City, California [10]. The governments collaborate with emerging tech companies, including Uber, Starship, Kiwibot, Cruise, and so on. However, most of the programs are operating in small areas, indicating the experimental phase of these initiatives and the challenges in scaling up to wider service areas. When these systems are deployed at scale, several scenarios of concern and necessary considerations arise. Firstly, robotic delivery units could congest sidewalks, reducing accessibility for pedestrians and other users. This might require new urban planning strategies and dedicated pathways to ensure safe coexistence. Secondly, their widespread use could alter urban form and infrastructure, prompting cities to redesign pedestrian zones and potentially repurpose existing spaces.